Hydrogeological connectivity and microbiological contamination by Escherichia coli: A GIS application in the Santa Marta Micro-Watershed, Tarrazú, Costa Rica
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22458/urj.v18i1.6179Keywords:
Escherichia coli, soil infiltration test, hydrogeological vulnerability, urban encroachment, multi-criteria evaluation, GIS, micro-watershed managementAbstract
Introduction: In the Santa Marta micro-watershed, Tarrazú, Costa Rica, high concentrations of Escherichia coli (E. coli) have been reported, although the specific sources and mechanisms for this contamination were unclear. Objective: To analyze the influence of land use and hydrogeological conditions on E. coli. microbiological contamination in a tropical micro-watershed. Methods: We produced a relative concentration GIS (Geographic Information System) map of E. coli based on 64 water analyses conducted between July 2022 and October 2023. This was compared with potential concentration models integrating three main factors: land use, hydrogeological vulnerability, and basic soil infiltration capacity. Results: Sixty percent of the river network was classified within the High fecal contamination range, with average concentrations exceeding 1,600 MPN. Land use was dominated by agricultural crops (55% of the area), followed by urban areas (15%) and forest cover (25%). The first model (soil use + hydrogeologic vulnerability) achieved better adjustment in agricultural and forested areas, while the second (soil use + hydrogeologic vulnerability + soil infiltration) performed better in urban sectors. Conclusion: E. coli contamination in the Santa Marta micro-watershed is primarily associated with residential occupation of sites with hydrogeological vulnerability and flood-prone areas. Septic tanks were a key source of coliforms, which infiltrate groundwater and are later discharged into rivers. This process may also include contributions from sources located outside the topographic watershed, underscoring the importance of considering the hydrological basin as the functional unit of analysis.
References
Abanyie, S. K., Apea, O. B., Abagale, S. A., Amuah, E. E., & Sunkari, E. D. (2023). Sources and factors influencing groundwater quality and associated health implications: A review. Emerging Contaminants, 9, Article 100207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2023.100207
Banseka, Y. J., & Tume, S. J. P. (2024). Coliform bacteria contamination of water resources and implications on public health in Fako Division, southwest region, Cameroon. Advances in Environmental and Engineering Research, 5(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.21926/aeer.2402010
Barrantes, K., Chacón, L. M., Solano, M., & Achí, R. (2013). Contaminación fecal del agua superficial de la microcuenca del río Purires, Costa Rica, 2010–2011. Revista de la Sociedad Venezolana de Microbiología, 33(1), 40–45. http://www.scielo.org.ve/pdf/rsvm/v33n1/art09.pdf
Batres, C. A., & Barahona-Palomo, M. (2017). Comparación de tres métodos de infiltración para calcular el balance hídrico del suelo en la cuenca del río Suquiapa, El Salvador. Cuadernos de Investigación UNED, 9(1), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.22458/urj.v9i1.1674
Bryan, B. A. (2013). Incentives, land use, and ecosystem services: Synthesizing complex linkages. Environmental Science & Policy, 27, 124–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.12.010
Cavazzana, G., Lastoria, G., Dalmas, F., Gabas, S., & Filho, A. (2018). Maps algebra application to obtain natural and environmental vulnerability of flooding areas. Anuário do Instituto de Geociências, 41(1), 255–264. https://doi.org/10.11137/2018_1_255_264
Costa Rica. Ley Forestal N.º 7575, 16 de abril de 1996.
Costa Rica, Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía & Ministerio de Salud. (2007). Reglamento de vertido y reúso de aguas residuales (Decreto Ejecutivo N.º 33601-S).
Dávila, R., & De León, H. (2011). Importancia de la hidrogeología urbana: Ciencia clave para el desarrollo urbano sostenible. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 63(3), 463–477. https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-33222011000300008
Díaz, C. & Pardo, M. (2010). Renovación no habitacional: Propuesta y evaluación de un mecanismo de incentivo tributario. Cámara Chilena de la Construcción. https://catalogo.extension.cchc.cl/documentos/documentos/18994.pdf
Denyer, P., & Arias, O. (1990). Geología de la hoja Caraigres [Mapa]. Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
Digaletos, M., Ptacek, C. J., Thomas, J., & Liu, Y. (2023). Chemical and biological tracers to identify source and transport pathways of septic system contamination to streams in areas with low permeability soils. Science of the Total Environment, 870, 161866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161866
Dirección de Agua. (2023). DA_Concesiones [Conjunto de datos geoespaciales]. Sistema Nacional de Información Territorial. https://www.snitcr.go.cr/ico_servicios_ogc_info?k=bm9kbzo6MTA=&nombre=DIRECCI%C3%93N%20DE%20AGUA
Dixon, J. A. (1994). Economic analysis of environmental impacts. CATIE.
Fetter, C. W. (2001). Applied Hydrogeology (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Goto, D., & Yan, T. (2011). Effects of land uses on fecal indicator bacteria in the water and soil of a tropical watershed. Microbes and Environments, 26(3), 254–260. https://doi.org/10.1264/jsme2.ME11115
Hernández, G., Barranco, W., & Añino, Y. (2022). Análisis jerárquico (AHP) para la valoración de atributos ambientales de los índices de fragilidad ambiental (IFA) en Costa Rica. Ambientico, (282), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.36008/ambientico.282.6.36
Instituto Geográfico Nacional. (2017). Cartografía 1:5 000: Curvas de nivel 10 m [Datos geoespaciales]. Sistema Nacional de Información Territorial. https://www.snitcr.go.cr/ico_servicios_ogc_info?k=bm9kbzo6MjY=&nombre=IGN%20Cartograf%C3%ADa%201:5mil
Instituto Nacional de Vivienda y Urbanismo [INVU]. (2018). Manual de planes reguladores como instrumento de ordenamiento territorial (Reglamento N.º 6296).
Justin, S., Lihan, S., Mik, J., Grinang, J., Hou, K. K. W., Lazlus, L., Assan, T. M., Thomas, M. B. U., & Alau, F. S. (2025). Land use and seasonal effects on water quality and faecal contamination in Batang Layar River, Sarawak, Malaysia. Discover Applied Sciences, 8(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-025-07981-4
Kim, T., Kim, Y., Shin, J., Go, B., & Cha, Y. (2020). Assessing land-cover effects on stream water quality in metropolitan areas using the water quality index. Water, 12(11), 3294. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113294
Lapworth, D., Nkhuwa, D., Okotto, J., Pedley, S., Stuart, M., Tijani, M., & Wright, J. (2017). Urban groundwater quality in sub-Saharan Africa: Current status and implications for water security and public health. Hydrogeology Journal, 25(4), 1093–1116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-016-1516-6
Lee, J., Park, S., & Lee, S. (2023). Effect of land use on stream water quality and biological conditions in multi-scale watersheds. Water, 15(24), 4210. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15244210
Martínez-Játiva, M. N., Borja-Serrano, P., Valdebenito, H., & Machado, A. (2025). Pilot study on seasonal variability in microbial contamination in the developing tourist region of Mindo, Ecuador. BMC Research Notes, 18(1), 156. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-025-07205-3
Masson, I., González Castelain, J., Barranquero, R., Othax, N., Krüger, A., González, J., & Peluso, F. (2024). Impacto de la urbanización sobre la calidad de agua en arroyos pampeanos del centro bonaerense. Cuadernos del CURIHAM, 5, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.35305/curiham.ed24.e05
Méndez, R. (2021). Análisis de la factibilidad técnica en la implementación de la metodología índices de fragilidad ambiental (IFA) en el cantón de Siquirres, Costa Rica. Repertorio Científico, 24(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.22458/rc.v24i1.3086
Méndez, Y., & Calderón, F. (2010). Evaluación de aguas subterráneas contaminadas con putrescina y cadaverina. Hallazgos, 7(13). https://doi.org/10.15332/s1794-3841.2010.0013.07
Mukherjee, M., Cuthbert, R. E., Aitken, E., Gay, K. A., McKinney, K., & Brooks, J. P. (2023). Microbial fecal contamination and multidrug-resistant bacteria in the Mississippi Gulf Coast. Water, 15(13), 2339. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15132339
Murillo, J. (2017). Informe Estado de la Nación en desarrollo sostenible 2017: Recurso hídrico. Programa Estado de la Nación.
Obando, L. (2011). Estratigrafía y tectónica de la parte noreste de la hoja Dota, Costa Rica. Revista Geológica de América Central, 44, 71–82. https://doi.org/10.15517/rgac.v0i44.3446
Olaya, V. (2014). Sistemas de información geográfica. https://www.icog.es/TyT/files/Libro_SIG.pdf
Programa Estado de la Nación [PEN]. (2004). Estado de la Nación 2004: Armonía con la naturaleza. CONARE.
Programa Estado de la Nación [PEN]. (2017). Informe Estado de la Nación en desarrollo humano sostenible 2017. CONARE.
Programa Estado de la Nación [PEN]. (2022). Estado de la Nación 2022. Capítulo 4: Balance armonía con la naturaleza. CONARE.
Quamar, R., Jangam, C., Veligeti, J., Chintalapudi, P., & Janipella, R. (2017). Assessment of on-site sanitation systems on groundwater. Applied Water Science, 7(8), 4375–4386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-017-0583-8
Quesada, A. (2017). Geomorfología fluvial e inundaciones en la Cuenca Alta del Río General, Costa Rica. Anuário Do Instituto de Geociências, 40(2), 278–288. https://doi.org/10.11137/2017_2_278_28
Redondo-Solano, M., & Arias-Echandi, M. L. (2011). Comparación de métodos para el análisis de coliformes mediante NMP. Cuadernos de Investigación UNED, 3(2), 41–43. https://doi.org/10.22458/urj.v3i2.151
Reed, S. E., Hilty, J. A., & Theobald, D. M. (2013). Guidelines and incentives for conservation development. Conservation Biology, 28(1), 258–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12136
Reynolds, L. J., Martin, N. A., Sala-Comorera, L., Callanan, K., Doyle, P., O’Leary, C. et al. (2021). Identifying sources of faecal contamination. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.661954
Salamanca, D., Husserl, J., Ramos, J., & Rodríguez, J. (2023). Pathogens in runoff water treated by SUDS. Environmental Processes, 10(3), 2–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-022-00610-x
Servicio Nacional de Aguas Subterráneas, Riego y Avenamiento [SENARA]. (2004). SENARA-Vulnerabilidad [Datos geoespaciales]. SNIT.
Silva, J., Ramírez, L., Alfieri, A., Rivas, G., & Sánchez, M. (2004). Determinación de microorganismos indicadores en agua potable. Revista de la Sociedad Venezolana de Microbiología, 24, 46–49.
Tahiru, A. A., Doke, D. A., & Baatuuwie, B. N. (2020). Effect of land use and land cover changes on water quality in the Nawuni Catchment of the White Volta Basin, Northern Region, Ghana. Applied Water Science, 10(8). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-01272-6
Tamayo-Legorreta, E. M., García-Radilla, A., Moreno-Vázquez, E., Téllez-Figueroa, F., & Alpuche-Aranda, C. M. (2020). Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli pathotypes in swine farms. Salud Pública de México, 63(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.21149/11268
Tarnawska, P., Walczak, M., & Burkowska-But, A. (2023). Cemeteries as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 22(1), 297–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01651-w
UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme. (2020). Informe Mundial de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Desarrollo de los Recursos Hídricos 2020: Agua y Cambio Climático. UNESCO Publishing.
Verstappen, H. & Van Zuidam, R. (1991). The ITC system of geomorphology survey: a basis for the evaluation of natural resources and hazards. ITC Publication.
Viloria, M., & Cañón, J. (2016). Modelos de decaimiento de patógenos en ríos. Revista Científica en Ciencias Ambientales y Sostenibilidad, 3(2), 1–15.
World Vision. (2004). Manual de Manejo de Cuencas. World Vision.
Wu, J., Rees, P., & Dorner, S. (2011). Variability of E. coli density and sources. Journal of Water and Health, 9(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.063
Xu, K., Valeo, C., He, J., & Xu, Z. (2019). Climate and land use influences on bacteria levels in stormwater. Water, 11(12), 2451. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122451
Yucra, J. (2018). Gestión de riesgos ambientales en la distribución de sepulturas en el cementerio San José de Huancaro, Cusco [Tesis de Ingeniería Ambiental, Universidad Alas Peruanas].
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Note: This abstract contains an incorrect copyright due to technical issues. Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms: Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal
All journal contents are freely available through a CC BY 4.0 license.
CC BY 4.0 is a Creative Commons: you can copy, modify, distribute, and perform, even for commercial reasons, without asking permission, if you give appropriate credit.
Contents can be reproduced if the source and copyright are acknowledged according to the Open Access license CC BY 4.0. Self-storage in preprint servers and repositories is allowed for all versions. We encourage authors to publish raw data and data logs in public repositories and to include the links with all drafts so that reviewers and readers can consult them at any time.
The journal is financed by public funds via Universidad Estatal a Distancia and editorial independence and ethical compliance are guaranteed by the Board of Editors, UNED. We do not publish paid ads or receive funds from companies.
Follow Us on Facebook
